Center for Uncertainty Studies Blog - Tag [research]

Digital Academy 2023: Exploring Uncertainty in Toponyms within the British Colonial Corpus

Veröffentlicht am 2. Mai 2024

From September 25 to 28, 2023, the Digital History Working Group at Bielefeld University welcomed participants to the Digital Academy, themed "From Uncertainty to Action: Advancing Research with Digital Data." This event delved into the complexities of data-based research, exploring strategies to navigate uncertainties within the Digital Humanities. In a series of blog posts, four attendees of the workshop program share insights into their work on data collections and analysis and reflect on the knowledge gained from the interdisciplinary discussions at the Digital Academy. Learn more about the event visiting the Digital Academy Website.

Exploring Uncertainty in Toponyms within the British Colonial Corpus

by Shanmugapriya T

My research project aims to extract toponyms from the British India colonial corpus to create a historical gazetteer. The primary challenge in this work revolves around the toponyms themselves, as they exhibit a high degree of fuzziness and inconsistency, particularly in their spellings. Historically, mapping, documenting, and surveying have been recognized as essential tools employed by colonial powers to demarcate, expand, and exert control over their colonial subjects. These activities enabled the colonial administration to establish governance over land and streamline revenue collection during the British colonial period. As time progressed, surveys expanded beyond their initial military and geographical purposes, evolving into comprehensive sources of information encompassing geography, political economy, and natural history. The British colonial India corpus is, therefore, intricate, marked by non-standard formatting, and plagued by inconsistencies in the spelling of Indian toponyms. This intricacy adds an extra layer of complexity to the task of extracting and organizing these toponyms for the creation of a historical gazetteer. The recognition of these challenges underscores the importance of using advanced techniques and tools to handle the uncertainty inherent in this historical data.

Digital Humanities methods and tools

Dealing with fuzzy toponyms requires the application of specific and advanced techniques. In this context, I utilize digital humanities methods and tools to identify and extract these toponyms from the British India colonial corpus. Indian toponyms in the British colonial corpus often exhibit various spellings, such as "Noil", "Noyal", "Noyyal", "Bawani", "Bhawani" and "Bowani," representing different variations of river and place names in the Southern region of India. To address this challenge, I conducted an exploration of the corpus. My approach involved leveraging an English word database, employing regular expressions, using natural language processing module Spacy for customized entities, and utilizing other relevant Python libraries to extract transliterated words from the corpus. Additionally, I developed a user interface using programming languages HTML, CSS and JavaScript. I used an open access database MySQL to store the data and PHP for interactive and management of the data. Finally, I employed Geographic Information System (GIS) tool ArcGIS to filter, map, and tag the toponyms and other entities within the dataset. While these initial experiments contributed to theoretical considerations and raised awareness of the complexities inherent in studying the British colonial corpus, the employed method did not entirely resolve the challenge of extracting toponyms. It also inadvertently filtered out misspelled and non-contemporary English words, along with the targeted toponyms.

The new method I propose involves three distinct stages. The first stage centers on the identification of entities using advanced natural language processing module BERT Named Entity Recognition (NER) (Devlin et al. 2018) to create a trained dataset on place names. This NER system is instrumental in locating hidden toponyms and learning from contextual information. The second stage is dedicated to the extraction of fuzzy toponyms, for which I employ advanced natural language processing module DeezyMatch (Hosseini et al. 2020). DeezyMatch is specifically designed for fuzzy string matching and toponym extraction. To generate the training dataset for string pairs, I also collect alternate names of places in South India. By learning similar transformations as those present in the training set, DeezyMatch should be capable of applying this knowledge to unseen variations of toponyms. Subsequently, I use the cleaned dataset to determine optimal hyperparameters for specific scenarios, such as finding the ideal thresholds for matching. In the final stage, I create a database for the historical gazetteer and integrate it with the World Historical Gazetteer. This integration is significant as it offers a wide range of content and services that empower global historians, their students, and the general public to engage in spatial and temporal analysis and visualization within a data-rich environment, spanning global and trans-regional scales (“Introducing the World Historical Gazetteer”). This enhances the accessibility and utility of the historical toponym data for a broad audience.

Main challenges

The first and foremost challenge is the absence of a trained dataset of Indian place names. I need to focus on creating a trained dataset using Named Entity Recognition and other external open-access resources, such as Wikipedia. The second challenge pertains to the advanced programming techniques that I am experimenting with. The initial experiment with BERT NER for identifying toponym entities demonstrates that the algorithm performs well compared to other NER libraries. However, it also identified a few words that are not toponyms as place names and did not identify the broken toponym words as place names. Therefore, the extracted place name entities will require manual verification to confirm their accuracy. I anticipate encountering additional challenges when I begin exploring DeezyMatch, as I am currently in the initial stages of my research.

Digital Academy workshop on uncertainty

The Digital Academy workshop presented a fantastic opportunity for scholars like myself to convene and discuss a wide array of challenges, approaches, methods, and tools for addressing uncertainty. The inclusion of experts in the field of uncertainty was a valuable aspect of this workshop, enabling attendees to solicit advice and feedback on the challenges they face in their research. Although I was not able to attend the entire workshop, the workshop's theme serves as a motivating factor for me to persist in my research endeavors despite the numerous challenges I've encountered. I believe that ongoing discussions and collaboration within the academic community will be instrumental in finding effective solutions to these challenges and further advancing the field.

Questions remain open

The open questions revolve around the ideal size of the corpus required for applying the aforementioned advanced techniques and the expected effectiveness of the trained dataset. However, I am hopeful that I will be able to find answers to these questions in the near future.

References

World Historical Gazetteer. “Introducing the World Historical Gazetteer.” Accessed October 10, 2023. https://whgazetteer.org/about/.

Devlin, Jacob, Ming-Wei Chang, Kenton Lee and Kristina Toutanova. “BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding.” North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (2019). Accessed October 5, 2023. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1810.04805v2.

Hosseini, Kasra, Federico Nanni, and Mariona Coll Ardanuy. “DeezyMatch: A Flexible Deep Learning Approach to Fuzzy String Matching.” Paper presented at the Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing: System Demonstrations, Online, October 2020. https://aclanthology.org/2020.emnlp-demos.9. Accessed October 5, 2023.

Biographical note

Shanmugapriya T is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at the Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) Dhanbad. She was a Digital Humanities Postdoctoral Scholar in the Department of Historical and Cultural Studies (HCS) at the University of Toronto Scarborough. Her expertise centers around the development and application of digital humanities methods and tools for historical and literary research in South Asia, particularly within the realms of colonial and postcolonial studies. She has a specific focus on areas such as text mining, digital mapping, and the creation of digital creative visualizations.

Visit the personal website: https://www.shanmugapriya.com/

Gesendet von AStrothotte in Digital Academy

Tags: research digital uncertainty history

Digital Academy 2023: Catrina Langenegger about Swiss Military Refugee Camps

Veröffentlicht am 5. April 2024

Historical Map of Switzerland.

Swiss military refugee camps

by Catrina Langenegger

In my research project I examine the Swiss policy of asylum and the military camps for refugees during the Second World War. In this blog post, I thereby focus on the data I collected on these refugee camps and the questions of uncertainty within my work with the data. I encountered uncertainty primarily in the areas of incomplete data, the standardisation process and different data qualities. I will first give a short introduction to my research topic and will then discuss the sources and data I collected. I will thereafter focus on my work with the data, the challenges I encountered when dealing with uncertainty and the benefits I took away from the Digital Academy.

Refugee aid is a civil task. As I focus on military support, I consequently deal with a temporary, exceptional phenomenon. In Switzerland, first the private refugee aid organisations and then the department of police were responsible for the refugees. From 1940 onwards the department of police opened camps to home the refugees and emigrants who sought protection in Switzerland. In the late summer of 1942 the number of refugees was constantly rising. More and more, the civil administration was overstrained. It could neither provide enough space for housing, nor enough financial support, food and staff. Briefly said, the system of civil refugee camps was in danger to collapse. In this situation, the military was asked to stand in. The army was considered to be the only institution that could acquire enough buildings, recruit enough personal and provide a sufficient system for replenishment.

In September 1942 the first reception camp lead by the military was established in Geneva. The army took over the first care for the refugees with food, clothing and accommodation. From that point of time, a new system of three different camps lead by the military was established, that every refugee hat to go through, before being placed constantly in a refugee camp under civil administration. Collecting camps where placed next to the boarder. Due to concerns for hygiene, the refugees were obliged to spend three weeks in a quarantine camp. After the quarantine, the refugees could theoretically move to civil camps but most of the refugees had to stay in reception camps because there was no space for them under the civil administration. Some of the refugees had to stay only for a few days or weeks, others spent months in reception camps. These military refugee camps are the topic of my research. They operated until after the end of the war.

Serial sources as data

Besides the administrative sources like commands and instructions, protocols of inspections and meetings, and weekly reports from the camps are stored in the Swiss federal archives. These serial sources are the basis of my data analysis. I found them in eleven different archive collections. I extracted the information out of the reports into a database. All in all, I found reports on 168 weeks, from October 1942 to July 1946. Nevertheless, the thereby combined collection contains voids. For at least eleven weeks no reports were to be found. It is at least eleven because the first report dates on the 18th of October 1942. However, first camps were opened in September 1942. I am not aware of earlier reports as I could not find any. But it is also possible that the standardised reporting started only in the middle of October. The voids are one aspect of uncertainty I will focus on in this blog post. I aim at being transparent about the gaps and make them visible at all stages of processing.

During the process of data cleaning, I decided to work only with data that refers to one or more refugee in a camp. Data with no refugees or camps that were emptied and only on reserve are therefore not included in the dataset. All in all, I have a dataset with more than 6’000 observations on refugees in the camps. These observations do not only show how many refugees were housed, but also which type of refugees (civilian, military) they were and which type of camp (quarantine, collection, or reception camp) it was. Reflecting on these categories is part of my data critique and leads as well into the field of uncertainty.

The next step was data cleaning and standardisation. I corrected obvious typing errors in the process of data extraction to reduce the number of variables. Then I standardised the camp names. As a subject librarian, dealing with data and meta-data as well as standardising it is part of my daily task. Here are some examples for standardisation with changing names: the camp name “Grand Verger” refers to the same camp as “Signal”. Similarly, the names “Geisshubel” and “Rothrist” refer to the same camp. I put a lot of effort into the standardisation. In the end I found 221 camps. Since one aim of my research project is to depict and analyse the refugee camp system over time, it was important to have a data set as clean and reliable as possible as a basis for the analysis. The various standardisation steps were important for data quality, as the quality of the entire analysis depends on it.

Handling data and uncertainty

To take a step further and to focus on questions about living in the camps during the analysis, I enriched my data with information about the building type and the exact georeference. My approach to deal with the uncertainty I encountered when collecting geodata for every camp to analyse and visualize it in a geographic information system (GIS) to show the geographical distribution, was triangulation by other source types. Sources that contained the necessary information were reports, protocols, autobiographies etc. I also used historical maps provided by swisstopo¹, to localise the camps. In many cases the information was good: “factory building 500 metres outside the village” or “Hotel up on a hill between this village and the other”. I could then add the exact geodata. For other camps, the information was not as precise as I had hoped for, and I had only the name of the village. In other cases – most of them were hospitals, prisons, or camps that were only open for a short time. But the location was always within the borders of the territorial district. So I made a sound decision for these camps. For one entity without any information, not even the district, I decided to not georeference it at all.

As I am working as a librarian, I am used to the convention of coding the quality of the metadata. In a library catalogue you can check the level of cataloguing, whether the book was catalogued by a librarian or a machine for example. Having varying qualities of data in my set, I aimed at qualifying it. I therefore went for three different categories: A B and C to make a statement on the accuracy of my data. If someone wants to use my data later, the uncertainty is made transparent through this code. A stands for the best quality, i.e. information about the address at the level of the building. B stands for medium quality; the information is correct at the village or town level. C stands for the most uncertain category, the information is provided within the territorial district and is based on variant indications.

I now come back to the missing reports mentioned above. My goal is to be transparent about this gap. However, making this gap visible in statistics and visualisations is one of the greatest challenges when dealing with uncertainty. Statistics and visualisations are positivistic: they only show what is there. In the first statistics, the gaps weren’t visible. I therefore made artificial observations in my dataset with a zero as value to mark the gaps. In other words, I made the missing weekly reports visible by creating an observation for each of these dates. I have labelled these artificial observations as such. My data model now provides a field to mark whether there is a report for the week or not. Nevertheless, it’s almost impossible to visualise the weeks without information. Although I have made artificial entries in my dataset, these are not displayed in the visualizations because they do not contain a value.

fig. 1: Timeline with missing data

fig. 2: Auto-corrected timeline

The software I use calculates out all uncertain data and provides the average. I found a way to work around this by only using the edit mode, even for my visualisations because in the viewing mode, the observations inserted by me to show the uncertainty will be removed. In both examples, I was able to incorporate the uncertainty into the data via a categorisation in my data model. In this way, I also hope that my data can be better reused, as it makes transparent statements about its own quality.

The workshop of the Digital Academy 2023 gave me the impetus to take a closer look at the subject of insecurity. The opportunity to exchange ideas with other researchers was very enriching. I was also able to present how I deal with uncertainty and develop an even clearer definition of my categories and my approach based on the discussions and comments in the workshop.

Biographical note

Catrina Langenegger recently submitted her PhD thesis on refugee camps under military control in Switzerland during the Second World War. She conducts her research at the Centre for Jewish Studies at the University of Basel. As a historian with a focus on digital humanities she exercises her passion for data also in her role as subject librarian with a background in library and information sciences.

References:

1. Cf. Karten der Schweiz - Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft - map.geo.admin.ch: https://map.geo.admin.ch/?topic=swisstopo&lang=de&bgLayer=ch.swisstopo.pixelkarte-farbe&catalogNodes=1392&layers=ch.swisstopo.zeitreihen&time=1864&layers_timestamp=18641231.

Gesendet von AStrothotte in Digital Academy

Tags: history data interds uncertainty digital research

Looking back on 2023 – and into the future

Veröffentlicht am 22. Dezember 2023

Photo Copyrights: Philipp Ottendörfer, imago / Ikon Images / Gary Waters, Universität Bielefeld.

For CeUS, the year 2023 was shaped by exciting developments in the field of uncertainty research at Bielefeld University and beyond. It is worth taking this chance to look back at the key events of the year.

2023 began with a stimulating Uncertainty Talk by Gerd Gigerenzer on "Umgang mit Ungewissheit im digitalen Zeitalter“. This was followed in May with a lecture by guest researcher and CeUS member Jens Zinn, who we also recently featured on this blog.

Following the new website, this interdisciplinary blog was launched to make news available at a glance.

In July, Deutschlandfunk reported on the innovative uncertainty research presented in June at the conference "Navigating Uncertainty: Preparing Society for the Future" organized by CeUS. The focus lay on the question of how uncertainty can be used productively in society. The conference was successful in bringing together and connecting many interesting researchers from different scientific communities.

In September, we were able to congratulate CeUS member Carsten Reinhardt for his participation in the excellent "Residues: Thinking Through Chemical Environments" and his Robert K. Merton Book Award. In addition, this year's Digital Academy "From Uncertainty to Action: Advancing Research with Digital Data" highlighted data-based research methods in the digital humanities with regard to questions of uncertainty research.

In October, the new graduate school "Coping with Uncertainty in Dynamic Economies" (CUDE) was launched, which is closely linked to CeUS and it's activities at Bielefeld University.

One month later, we were able to take a look at current research by Elif Sandal Önal and Andreas Zick from the IKG and also announce the new Uncertainty Events. At the first Uncertainty Lunch, there was an inspiring exchange on new interdisciplinary collaborations.

The CeUS team is already looking forward to the new year 2024: in addition to events such as the second Lunch on January 11 and the Uncertainty Research Afternoon on January 22, we are also looking forward to further interviews as part of the "Meet ..." series, in which CeUS researchers are regularly featured. The series continues in January with historian Christian Wachter. Exciting new Uncertainty Talks also await us later in 2024.

CeUS wishes you happy holidays and a good start to the new year!

Gesendet von AStrothotte in Research News

Tags: 2023 interdisciplinarity recap research uncertainty

Uncertainties and Policy Support: A Brief Look at The Two Ongoing Studies at Bielefeld University

Veröffentlicht am 10. November 2023

by Elif Sandal Önal & Andreas Zick

Independent of legal and structural effects, governmental and political decisions taken during crises or emergencies are received and interpreted through different cognitive and emotional dynamics of citizens (Maor & Capelos, 2023). These lead to support or rejection of policies. The processing of the information relevant to policies also differs, at least, depending on the psychological underpinnings that refer to individual differences (McDermott, 2019) and the characteristics of the crisis context like the level of emergency (Albertson & Gadarian, 2015) or on the way the issue of the policy is framed (e.g., Esses et al., 2013). Intersecting all these factors, uncertainty and the navigation of uncertainties, linked to cognitive and affective dynamics, is of utmost importance, particularly during crises (Zick & Sandal-Önal, 2023). A clear definition of uncertainties and a reliable analysis of the navigation help understand citizens' support for policies. This is also crucial since general modes of navigation are needed in times of global and interlinked polycrises. Two research projects we are conducting in IKG provide different lenses to different facets of uncertainty regarding public support for government policies in Germany. The findings indicate the cruciality of individual and collective uncertainties on political attitudes and behaviors, particularly during crises and emergencies.

Understanding the role of uncertainty in different political groups' policy support

The first project investigates the social-psychological dynamics of supporting or opposing government policies on the hot-debated issues of coronavirus measures, climate change, and migration. Here, different from the methodologies in policy research, we focused on the individual and group-level dynamics of policy support and tested how uncertainty influences individuals' support for these specific policies. Through an online survey with 300 participants (123 female, five diverse, mean age is 31.52), we asked several questions to people to reveal their support for specific COVID-19 measures (general support for the measures in the peak of pandemic, support for wearing masks and vaccination, and the intentions to join a protest against the measures), climate policies, and migration policies. We also asked them whether they were uncertain of their knowledge about these specific policies, the future of themselves and close others, social cohesion, and the world in general.

The study first reveals two uncertainties reported by the participants: the issue-based or informational uncertainty refers to the lack of knowledge about the issues subject to policies in question, and the relational or general uncertainty involves concerns about the future, about social cohesion in Germany and the world as a whole. Expectedly, two uncertainties are positively related. The findings demonstrate interesting interrelations between the variables: The relationship between the uncertainty of knowledge about COVID-19 measures and climate policies is positive, so those who are uncertain about COVID-19 measures are also uncertain about their knowledge of climate policies. As expected, those uncertain about the future and the world support climate policies more. On the other hand, being uncertain about the societal cohesion in Germany is related to a lower support to the government policies about migration. Naturally, public support for government policies during the crises depends on different contextual dynamics like political trust (Macdonald, 2021; Robinson et al., 2021; Weinberg, 2022) or political party preferences or ideologies (Cohen, 2003; McCright & Dunlap, 2011; Unsworth & Fielding, 2014). For this study, we tested whether different uncertainties influence the relationship between political positions and policy support, considering uncertainty impacts individuals' political evaluations (Haas et al., 2020). The findings demonstrate that it is the issue-based or informational uncertainty that has a strengthening impact on this relationship. In other words, the correspondence between individuals' political positions (left or right) and their policy support is getting stronger when they are uncertain about the policy-relevant issues. General or relational uncertainties involving the future, social cohesion, or the world have no influence.

The study is ongoing, and the first results were presented at the International Conference on Navigating Uncertainty: Preparing Society for the Future in June 2023 at Bielefeld University (Sandal-Önal, Hellmann & Zick, 2023).

"I do not know what war means": Understanding emotional and informational uncertainty in support of the German government's military policies during the war in Ukraine.

The Bielefeld Peace Study (BIEFrie) was launched in May 2022 to understand the public attitudes in German society towards the ongoing war in Ukraine with an online survey. 1048 participants (571 female, mean age is 44), mostly from West Germany and with high education, were asked whether they support the German government's policies regarding military support for Ukraine, in addition to the items about the uncertainty on war, peace, and future. Starting from the outbreak of war, the social and political context on the agenda all over Europe was characterized by emergencies and crises (mostly related to resources like energy) expected to fuel a collective uncertainty shared at all levels of society. This collective uncertainty not only appears in the form of a collective emotion portrayed by fear, anxiety, and helplessness before an unknown future but also in an informational dimension whereby people declare their lack of knowledge about the ongoing crises. For this study, we answered whether the support for military-political policies of the German government is related to these collective uncertainties.

The vast majority of the respondents reported having high emotional and informational uncertainty. 75% stated that they are uncertain what the future will look like, while 40% said they are uncertain about what war means, and nearly 55% declared their lack of knowledge about the real reasons for the ongoing war in Ukraine. Considering how to bring peace back again, 47% reported that they have no idea how to restore peace. On the other hand, the majority of participants reported their support for Germany's military actions in favor of Ukraine.

Interestingly, emotional and informational uncertainty about war indicates lower support for military policies, while uncertainty about peace indicates the opposite. Further analyses show that respondents who have high emotional uncertainty do not support military policies because they consider Russia a threat to Europe and are concerned that the war might be expanded. However, this is not the case for those who report high uncertainty about the war. On the other hand, considering Russia as a threat to Europe also explains the relationship between peace uncertainty and higher support for military policies. So, people do not know how to restore peace, considering Germany's military support policies to Ukraine would decrease the Russian threat towards Europe. The scientific report of the study is in progress, while the uncertainty-related findings were presented at various conferences (e.g., Sandal-Önal, Ayanian, et al., 2023).

References

Albertson, B., & Gadarian, S. K. (2015). Anxious Politics: Democratic Citizenship in a Threatening World. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139963107

Cohen, G. L. (2003). Party Over Policy: The Dominating Impact of Group Influence on Political Beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 808–822. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.808

Esses, V. M., Medianu, S., & Lawson, A. S. (2013). Uncertainty, Threat, and the Role of the Media in Promoting the Dehumanization of Immigrants and Refugees: Dehumanization of Immigrants and Refugees. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 518–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12027

Haas, I. J., Baker, M. N., & Gonzalez, F. J. (n.d.). Political uncertainty moderates neural evaluation of incongruent policy positions.

Macdonald, D. (2021). Political Trust and Support for Immigration in the American Mass Public. British Journal of Political Science, 51(4), 1402–1420. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123419000668

Maor, M., & Capelos, T. (2023). Symposium: Affect and emotions in policy dynamics. Policy Sciences, 56(3), 439–448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-023-09512-7

McCright, A. M., & Dunlap, R. E. (2011). The Politicization of Climate Change and Polarization in the American Public's Views of Global Warming, 2001–2010. The Sociological Quarterly, 52(2), 155–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2011.01198.x

McDermott, R. (2019). Psychological Underpinnings of Post-Truth in Political Beliefs. PS: Political Science & Politics, 52(2), 218–222. https://doi.org/10.1017/S104909651800207X

Robinson, S. E., Ripberger, J. T., Gupta, K., Ross, J. A., Fox, A. S., Jenkins-Smith, H. C., & Silva, C. L. (2021). The Relevance and Operations of Political Trust in the COVID-19 Pandemic. Public Administration Review, 81(6), 1110–1119. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13333

Sandal-Önal, E., Hellmann, J., & Zick, A. (2023, June 5). The Role of Uncertainty in the Support for Governmental Policies. Paper presented at the 1st Interdisciplinary Uncertainty Conference: Navigating Uncertainty: Preparing the Society for the Future, Bielefeld University.

Sandal-Önal, E., Ayanian, A.H., Eden, M., Mokros, N. & Zick, A. (2023). Does Uncertainty about the War in Ukraine pave the way to Support Military Action? Paper presented at the ECPR General Conference, Charles University, September 4-8, 2023, Prague.

Unsworth, K. L., & Fielding, K. S. (2014). It's political: How the salience of one's political identity changes climate change beliefs and policy support. Global Environmental Change, 27, 131–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.05.002

Weinberg, J. (2022). Can Political Trust Help to Explain Elite Policy Support and Public Behaviour in Times of Crisis? Evidence from the United Kingdom at the Height of the 2020 Coronavirus Pandemic. Political Studies, 70(3), 655–679. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321720980900

Zick, A., & Sandal-Önal, E. (2023). Uncertainty in Conflicts between Societal Groups – A Social Psychological View (Vol. 4) [Working Paper]. https://pub.uni-bielefeld.de/record/2979155

Gesendet von AStrothotte in Research News

Tags: policy research uncertainty ikg climate covid biefrie war survey

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