NEWS der A & O

Background The potential of Augmented Reality (AR) for enhancing learning has long been discussed, however, existing research primarily relies on media comparisons that provide little basis for robust theoretical development. The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) proposes design principles for learning materials to support cognitive processes leading to learning, which have been shown to be effective in different media, though have very rarely been investigated in AR. Objectives This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of two important learning principles, that is signalling and modality, on learning outcomes in AR, while examining the potential moderating impact that cognitive-affective factors caused by the technology may have. Methods Eighty adults participated in this pre-registered 2 × 2 experimental study. To test the signalling and modality principles, the presence of virtual signals (absent/present) and the content modality (text/audio) was manipulated between-subjects during an AR learning session. Declarative and procedural knowledge were measured after the learning session and additionally, learners' motivation and the system usability were included as moderators in the analysis to account for AR-specific influences. Results and Conclusions The findings revealed no significant main or interaction effects of the signalling and modality principles on either declarative or procedural knowledge, and motivation and system usability did not moderate these relationships. This indicates that the expected benefits of these design principles may not translate effectively to AR contexts, underscores the complexity of educational AR, and highlights the need for further research to better align instructional design with the unique affordances of immersive technologies. Bödding, R., & Maier, G. W. (2026). Investigating the Modality and Signalling Principles in Immersive Augmented Reality Learning Environments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jcal.70183